Emergency preparedness flyer Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Emergency preparedness flyer - Essay Example The primary focus would be to draw up a community preparedness plan, the default thing to do in any foreseeable emergency in which certain things have to be taken into account. Firstly, know what to expect. Educating oneself about the kind of disaster along with some information regarding their location would help prepare them accordingly. Populations living near the coastline should prepare for a tsunami whereas those living near or on a fault line should know what to do in case of an earthquake. Coming up with an emergency plan related to the specific disaster would be much more highly effective than a generic plan encompassing all that could go wrong (Kehayan & Napoli, 2005). Ironically, the very technology that has been put in place to help during a calamity has also put us at a disadvantage, primarily due to our dependency upon it. Today's masses live in a very different world compared to an earlier generation, when cross community communications were an intrinsic part of life a nd as such are much more ill prepared when things such as electricity, internet, gas, and water, which they are so dependent upon, are suddenly unavailable.

Attitudinal Behaviour Essay Example for Free

Attitudinal Behaviour Essay Purpose – In order to classify individuals based on their needs, this paper aims to consider both self-stated attitudes and behaviours in a comprehensive range of daily ï ¬ nancial affairs. Furthermore, it aims to study the impacts of socio-demographic variables such as gender, age, and education. Design/methodology/approach – A questionnaire was answered by 1,282 respondents in the German-speaking part of Switzerland. Factor analysis revealed ï ¬ ve components. Based on these components a two-step cluster analysis (Ward and K-means analyses) identiï ¬ ed distinct subgroups. Linear regressions were used to investigate the impacts of socio-demographic variables. Findings – Factor analysis revealed ï ¬ ve underlying dimensions of ï ¬ nancial attitudes and behaviour: anxiety, interests in ï ¬ nancial issues, decision styles, need for precautionary savings, and spending tendency. Cluster analysis segmented the respondents into ï ¬ ve subgroups based on these dimensions with an ascending order of speciï ¬ c needs for ï ¬ nancial products. Gender, age, and education were found to have signiï ¬ cant impacts. Research limitations/implications – Real consumption behaviour cannot be observed through the survey, which limits the external validity of the study. Practical implications – The segmentation identiï ¬ es different levels of ï ¬ nancial competence and needs for ï ¬ nancial products. It allows ï ¬ nancial service providers to offer more effective advice and to meet customers on their own level to improve personal ï ¬ nancial management. Originality/value – Attitudes and behaviours in daily ï ¬ nancial affairs are examined to reveal individuals’ ï ¬ nancial competence and consequential product needs. A heterogeneous sample covers a variety of demographic groups. Keywords Personal ï ¬ nance, Savings, Questionnaires, Factor analysis, Cluster analysis, Switzerland Paper type Research paper Introduction Everyone has to manage his or her personal ï ¬ nance in one way or another. Some tend to save a lot, some like to collect information before each purchase, some like to follow their gut feelings. Private investors are not a homogeneous group but rather The authors would like to acknowledge the support of the University Research Priority Program â€Å"Finance and Financial Markets† of the University of Zurich and the National Centre of Competence in Research â€Å"Financial Valuation and Risk Management† (NCCR FINRISK), Project 3, â€Å"Evolution and Foundations of Financial Markets†. In addition, they would like to thank the Swiss ï ¬ nancial company that provided them with client data and the anonymous referee for the helpful comments. International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol. 27 No. 2, 2009 pp. 108-128 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0265-2323 DOI 10.1108/02652320910935607 individuals with various ï ¬ nancial practices combined with different levels of experience, anxiety and interest in ï ¬ nancial matters (Gunnarsson and Wahlund, 1997). In an increasingly competitive marketplace, ï ¬ nancial institutions need to emphasise customer relationships and the retention of existing customers that require an in-depth understanding of their attitudes and behaviours (Harrison and Ansell, 2002). The heterogeneous market is divided into smaller more homogeneous groups to meet speciï ¬ c needs with a corresponding business model (Jenkins and McDonald, 1997). Market segmentation relies, in the ï ¬ nancial industry, largely on socio-demographic information to deï ¬ ne segments for speciï ¬ c services (Harrison, 2000). It is questionable  ¨ as to how appropriate they are (Jorg, 2005), therefore in this study, selected aspects of ï ¬ nancial affairs such as routines and attitudes are gathered to gain insights towards signiï ¬ cant behavioural patt erns. The objective in this research is to examine the extent to which a broad range of private investors can be classiï ¬ ed into a small number of clusters in order to learn about group-speciï ¬ c needs in ï ¬ nancial affairs. More than 1,200 participants in Switzerland have answered our questionnaire with a response rate of 79 per cent. Unlike some other studies in this ï ¬ eld (e.g. Lim and Teo, 1997; Wood and Zaichkowsky, 2004), this survey is not limited to students, but includes a broader range of the public. Instead of focusing solely on savings behaviour (EBRI, 2002; MacFarland et al., 2003), the present study embraces a wider scope of daily ï ¬ nancial concerns. Thereby factor analysis exposes ï ¬ ve underlying dimensions: anxiety, interests in ï ¬ nancial issues, decision styles, need for precautionary savings, and spending tendency. We demonstrate that our respondents can, based on these dimensions, be classiï ¬ ed into ï ¬ ve distinct groups by cluster analysis where from cluster I to V, the need for action for a better handling of ï ¬ nancial matters increases: for example, the â€Å"Gut-feeling followers† show a intuitive way of decision taking, disinterest in ï ¬ nancial subjects and a lack of awareness for the need of provision which make it difï ¬ cult to argue for or to initiate remedial action. Each cluster raises key issues in meeting their needs and allows for guidance to design and adapt instruments to assist in speciï ¬ c ï ¬ nancial requirements. To illustrate how ï ¬ nancial behaviour can be modiï ¬ ed to improve personal ï ¬ nance speciï ¬ cally for each group, examples from the area of retirement savings, an important part of daily ï ¬ nancial management, are chosen (Clark-Murphy and Soutar, 2005). Linear regression further reveals that the clusters highlight socio-demographic characteristics and help generate a better understanding, although one socio-demographic factor alone does not offer enough information to detect cluster membership. The main theoretical contribution of this paper is that we segment the investors based on the revealed dimensions in attitudes (e.g., level of anxiety), together with the self-stated ï ¬ nance-related behavioural pattern (e.g., spending tendency). In this way we could identify the speciï ¬ c needs and provide different services to each subgroup. Theoretical background and literature review Individuals show considerable deviation from the expectation of rational behaviour implied by ï ¬ nancial models (Barberis, 2003). Being conscious of the empirical limitations of the homo economicus model for exploring the behaviour of private individuals, behavioural ï ¬ nance broadens the view by combining knowledge from psychology and economics ( Camerer and Loewenstein, 2004). Our study belongs to this area. However, instead of focusing on particular anomalies and biases that individuals succumb to, such as overconï ¬ dence and procrastination (Biais et al., 2005; O’Donoghue and Rabin, 1998), we broaden the scope under review by studying general patterns when dealing with ï ¬ nancial issues. Market segmentation In the ï ¬ nancial services industry, market segmentation is a common method to understand better and serve the diverse customer base with its wide-ranging needs and various behaviours (Speed and Smith, 1992). Competitive pressures from deregulation of the ï ¬ nancial services market increase the requirement for market orientation and a more intimate knowledge of the market and its segments (Gunnarsson and Wahlund, 1997). Previous research has shown that there are various beneï ¬ ts from taking a segmented approach to the marketplace: a better serving of customer requirements; a tailoring of offerings; and higher customer satisfaction (Harrison and Ansell, 2002). It can increase customer retention and create loyalty and long-term relationships that positively affect performance (Martenson, 2008). Market segmentation aims to recognise patterns of ï ¬ nancial behaviour, identiï ¬ ed by studied segment predictors to group individuals into segments according to their product needs (Harrison, 2000). Yet, marketing in the ï ¬ nancial services industry today is still predominantly based on socio-demographic features like gender and age which are easy to identify and easy to apply in the composition of groups (Machauer and Morgner, 2001). A prediction of needs from socio-demographic characteristics cannot be assumed; therefore these widely used a priori segmentations are under review (Speed and Smith, 1992). In contrast, post hoc methods entail the grouping of respondents according to their responses to particular variables, focusing on customer motivations (i.e. needs/behaviour) that are more likely to result in a service based on individual n eed (Durkin, 2005). In research, behavioural segmentation is increasingly found (Elliott and Glynn, 1998; Soper, 2002), although researchers continue to concentrate on the ï ¬ nancial behaviour of speciï ¬ c groups and selective variables  ¨ (Warneryd, 2001). This study focuses on the general population, giving a more holistic view of personal ï ¬ nancial management activities and taking attitudes and behaviour into account. Individual investors The literature on individual economic behaviour often focuses narrowly on speciï ¬ c  ¨ areas such as risk attitudes (Warneryd, 1999; Wood and Zaichkowsky, 2004) or saving (Normann and Langer, 2002; Thaler and Benartzi, 2004). Other ï ¬ elds of research target investment in securities (Barber and Odean, 2001; Brennan, 1995; Keller and Siegrist, 2006) or focus on speciï ¬ c segments such as occupational groups (e.g., dentists and  ¨ managers (Jorg, 2005)). Speciï ¬ c ï ¬ nancial issues or situations, however, are not indicative of an individual’s behavioural and attitudinal disposition toward ï ¬ nance. Rather an interest in ï ¬ nances or having certain habits related to managing one’s ï ¬ nancial means may indeed be a moderating factor to learn about behaviours and needs (Loix et al., 2005). The attitudes and behaviours toward ï ¬ nances regarded in this study focus on individual ï ¬ nancial management behaviour. It is a topic with important implications that has not been sufï ¬ ciently examined in ï ¬ nancial and economic behavioural studies (Loix et al., 2005). The subject is not covered by the extensive research on individual’s attitudes and habits towards money, as such studies focus on the meaning of money (Lim and Teo, 1997) or basic values concerning money in general as an abstract concept (Raich, 2008), and not on an individuals’ ways of dealing with his or her personal ï ¬ nance. Previous studies of private investors have used mainly behaviour-based criteria or attitudes and do not combine both aspects (Keller and Siegrist, 2006) that are the focus of this study. This study is not product-linked but wider ranging in that it examines the self-stated ï ¬ nancial attitudes and behaviour of individual investors. Attitudes and behaviours A frequently discussed question in research is to what extent attitudes predict behaviour. A direct relationship between attitudes and behaviour has often been found to be weak, but difï ¬ culties in ï ¬ nding a strong relationship might derive from  ¨ differences in deï ¬ nition and measurement (Warneryd, 1999). The more speciï ¬ c the attitude is the better are the chances of ï ¬ nding a substantial correlation with behaviour if behaviour is also deï ¬ ned as a speciï ¬ c act (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980). Therefore, deï ¬ ned questions or attitudes can have predictive power and a higher correlation of attitude to-wards behaviour has been conï ¬ rmed in studies (in a comprehensive  ´ meta-analysis: Glasman and AlbarracÄ ±n, 2006; Tesser and Shaffer, 1990). A further question is the beneï ¬ t of knowledge concerning behaviour. Whilst behaviour changes over time, there is a popular assertion that â€Å"past behaviour is the best predictor of future behaviour† (Ajzen, 1991, p. 202). It is a reï ¬â€šection of these ideas that leads to attitudes and behaviour being explored in this paper. Financial needs segmentation Several typologies concerning the ï ¬ nancial affairs of private investors can be found in the previous literature, but with more speciï ¬ c approaches: se gmentations are based on ï ¬ nancial maturity and knowledge (Harrison, 1994), provision for retirement (Gough and Sozou, 2005) or savings strategies (Gunnarsson and Wahlund, 1997). Loix et al. (2005) come closest to the focus of this study with the question of orientation towards ï ¬ nances but their goal is to develop a measurement scale for individual’s ï ¬ nancial management. In this study, we examine the self-stated ï ¬ nancial attitudes and behaviour through a broader basis and do not restrict ourselves only to questions concerning risk or saving. We apply the methodology of cluster analysis to identify groups of private investors in order to obtain insight into the enforcing or modifying of speciï ¬ c behaviour. Cluster analysis has become a common tool in marketing and is a well-adopted method for market segmentation as well as the applied factor analysis apparent in this paper (Punj and Stewart, 1983). The aim of the present study is to obtain a better understanding of people’s needs in ï ¬ nancial matters to provide adequate services and products. This study, based on ï ¬ nancial service consumers, identiï ¬ es distinct motivational clusters that were independent of the more established socio-demographic segmentation variables used in targeting and communicating by ï ¬ nancial institutions. This study demonstrates that, by segmenting respondents on the basis of a broader range of ï ¬ nancial attitudes and behaviour, a yield of clearly interpretable proï ¬ les can be realised and is helpful to identify those people in most need of professional ï ¬ nancial advice. This research suggests that customer’s ï ¬ nancial proï ¬ les may be useful in predicting their response to new products as well as persuading them to use existing services for the speciï ¬ c beneï ¬ ts they value. Participants and questionnaire The data come from a questionnaire that wa s completed by 1,282 respondents from various regions of the German-speaking part of Switzerland. The respondents were recruited from two sources: 53 per cent of the participants (n  ¼ 680) were clients seeking consulting advice from a Swiss ï ¬ nancial planning company, together with participants in courses in ï ¬ nancial training within the same ï ¬ rm (convenient sample). The second source was employed to avoid a client bias in the study. A total of 602 study subjects (47 per cent of the total study) were identiï ¬ ed through a combination of â€Å"quota[1] and snowball[2] sampling procedures† (Vogt, 2005) so that its composition in terms of sex, age, and other demographic characteristics came close to reï ¬â€šecting the respective proportions in Switzerland. Although not every member of the population is equally likely to be selected, the sample is composed of a wide variety of backgrounds. The diversity came from such groups as participants in a study relating to ï ¬ nancial literacy, and from different sources such as a nursing home, a group of university students, a group of teachers, company employees from four Swiss companies unrelated to the ï ¬ nancial services sector, a group of self-employed people, participants in a course for the unemployed, and a group made up of parents. The questionnaire was designed in German. Participants were ï ¬ rst asked to give their self-assessment by answering 17 questions on their ï ¬ nancial behavioural practice or attitude towards ï ¬ nancial affairs. The response format is a ï ¬ ve-point-Likert-type scale with â€Å"absolutely† and â€Å"not at all† at the two ends of the question spectrum. Subsequently, the questionnaire contains questions concerning socio-demographic variables such as age, gender, career stage, and education[3]. The age of participants ranges from 18 to 84 years old, with 58.9 per cent between 36 and 65 years old (n  ¼ 755). The natural demographic balance of men and women is reï ¬â€šected in the sample with 49.3 per cent men (n  ¼ 632) and 50.7 per cent women (n  ¼ 650). The proportion of people with a university degree or equivalent is 46.6 per cent (n  ¼ 598), whereas 33.8 per cent participants (n  ¼ 433) obtained an apprenticeship (up to ï ¬ ve years). There are 14.5 per cent participants (n  ¼ 186) who have a high school diploma as the highest educational level, whereas 5.1 per cent participants (n  ¼ 65) have only attended secondary school. There are 10.5 per cent (n  ¼ 135) participants who were studying at a university or at another institute of higher education at the time of our survey. Methodology and results Factor analysis As the ï ¬ rst step we conducted an exploratory factor analysis, a principal component analysis, in order to determine the underlying dimensions of the ï ¬ nancial attitudes and behavioural tendencies. The chosen solution with ï ¬ ve principal components was constructed using the varimax rotation technique and can explain 53.3 per cent of the total variance. Different opinions concerning what constitut es a high loading are found in the literature, e.g. 0.3 (Gardner, 2001). Here, the rotated factor loading of 0.5 was chosen as a threshold.

Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) Functions

Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) Functions The immune system is complex, containing thousands of components. On the whole this highly adaptive system works well, protecting the individual primarily against the threat of disease caused by infectious organisms (Wood, 2006). However, the immune system can deteriorate and fail should any component of this refined system be mutated or compromised. In this report, an overview of the immune system will be covered, along with an explanation of how the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) functions specifically. An example of how the immune system can be compromised should the MHC molecule be short or absent will also be discussed with reference to a condition known as Bare Lymphocyte Syndrome. How the MHC molecule contributes to a healthy immune system will be discussed, along with the effect an MHC deficiency has and how this compromises the immune system at a molecular level. Reference will be made to a case study related to the Bare Lymphocyte Syndrome and a conclusion will be made as to how this condition links to the MHC molecule specifically. An Overview of the Immune System The immune system can be split into two systems of immunity, innate and adaptive immunity. Innate immunity is the first line of defence against pathogens in the body, preventing most infections occurring by eliminating the pathogen within hours of being encountered. This is achieved by firstly possessing external barriers to infections such as skin, mucosa, gut flora and lysozymes in tears. Secondly, the immune system mounts an immediate attack against any infectious sources entering the host via pre-existing defence mechanisms within the body. Phagocytosis is the major element contributing to innate immunity. This is the ingestion and destruction of microbes by phagocytes in a process by which the phagocyte attaches to the microbe in question, engulfs the microbe, kills the microbe and then degrades the microbe using proteolytic enzymes (Wood, 2006). This process is aided by complement proteins and opsonisation. Another part of the innate immune response is for inflammation to occur . This enables cells and soluble factors from the bloodstream to be enlisted at a particular tissue site in order to assist in the fight against infection. These can be local or systemic and cause vasodilation to occur at the site of infection; cause the endothelium to have increased expression of adhesion molecules in the cells lining the blood vessels; cause increased vascular permeability and cause chemotactic factors to be produced, therefore attracting cells into the tissue from the bloodstream (Wood, 2006). Overall, innate immunity is the first step in combating infection in the body; however a more specific system is often required. Acquired immunity occurs when a pathogen enters the body which the innate immune system cannot destroy, whether it is the pathogen has evolved a way of being avoided by the cells in the innate immune system or whether it be the pathogen expresses molecules similar to host cells as in the case of viruses. In such cases as these, acquired immunity is needed, where lymphocytes are used to identify, engulf and kill the pathogen in question. This is a more evolutionary advanced system compared to innate immunity. Two types of lymphocyte cells are employed in the acquired immune response; these are B lymphocyte cells, which are responsible for creating antibodies; and T lymphocyte cells, which are more complex in their receptor and require cell-to-cell contact. There are two types of T lymphocyte cells; those expressing CD4 molecules on their surface are referred to as Helper T cells or CD4 T cells, and those expressing CD8 molecules of their surface are referred to as cytotoxic T cells or CD8 T cells. The latter of these two T cells is important in the killing of virally infected cells (Kindt et. al., 2007). T cells recognise antigens by T cell Receptors (TcR) expressed on their surface; each T cell expresses only one TcR specifically. T cells do not recognise free antigens but recognise antigens associated with molecules on the surface of cells called Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) molecules (Wood, 2006). MHC molecules specifically for the human species are known as Human Leukocyte Antigens (HLA); these are located on chromosome 6 (Kindt et, al., 2007). The MHC constitutes important genetic components of the mammalian immune system. There are two types of MHC molecules, Class I and Class II MHC. Class I MHC molecules are glycoproteins expressed on the cell surface of most nucleated cells, whereas Class II MHC molecules are also glycoproteins but are restricted in their expression, primarily being found on cells of the immune system such as B cells, macropha ges, dendritic cells and monocytes (Wood, 2006). Class I and II MHC molecules bind to antigens derived from pathogens and present them to T lymphocytes (Sommer, 2005). CD8 T cells recognise antigens presented by Class I MHC molecules whereas CD4 T cells recognise antigens presented by Class II MHC molecules. MHC molecules play an important role in immune defence against intracellular pathogens, peptides derived from viral proteins and cancer infected cells. (Sommer, 2005). Antigen Presentation of MHC Class I An event involving generation of peptides from proteins in the cell and displaying these peptides on the plasma membrane is called antigen processing and presentation (Benjamini et al., 1996). MHC Class I molecules consists of HLA-A, HLA-B and HLA-C. HLA are cell surface heterodimers consisting of a polymorphic ÃŽ ± chain associated with a non-polymorphic ÃŽ ²2 microglobulin protein (Chaplin, 2010). In the antigen presentation pathway of MHC Class I, the viral protein is degraded into peptides through proteasome-mediated proteolysis which is then transported into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (fig 1). This transport process is facilitated by a transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP). Once in the ER, the translocated peptide binds to MHC Class I ÃŽ ± chains and ÃŽ ²2 microglobulin through momentary interaction of MHC Class I heterodimers and TAP (Chaplin, 2010). This momentary interaction is carried out with the help of Tapasin (fig 2). This binding of peptide and MHC Cl ass I results in structural changes; eventually leading to the dissociation of peptide-MHC Class I complex (Chaplin, 2010). This peptide-MHC Class I complex then migrates to the cell surface where it is recognised by CD8 T cells triggering the associated immune response. (Raghavan,1999). When the immune system is working correctly, pathogens entering the body will be destroyed rapidly. However, if a component of the immune system is compromised, devastating effects can be seen. An example of this was seen in the case study of Tatiana and Alexander Islayev; two siblings originally from Russia who were suffering from symptoms linked to Bare Lymphocyte Syndrome. Tatiana had severe bronchiectasis and a persistent cough which produced yellow-green sputum. She had been chronically ill since the age of 4 when she had begun to have repeated infections of the sinuses, middle ear and lungs, all due to a variety of respiratory viruses. Both Haemophilus influenza and Streptococcus pneumonia bacteria could be cultured from her sputum. She had been prescribed frequent antibiotic treatments to control her fevers and cough with no success. Her brother, Alexander was also showing the same symptoms. When their blood was examined, both children had elevated IgG levels with over 90% of their T cells being CD4 and only 10% being CD8. Both children expressed very small amounts of MHC Class I molecules in their cells but expressed MHC Class II molecules normally. When the childrens DNA was analysed, it was found that they both had a mutation in the TAP-2 gene. Type I Bare Lymphocyte Syndrome Bare Lymphocyte Syndrome (BLS) Type I also known as MHC Class I deficiency, is characterized by a severe down-regulation of MHC class I and/or class II molecules (Gadola et. al., 2000). Type 1 BLS is due to a defect confined to MHC class I molecules, while type 2 BLS shows down-regulation of MHC class II molecules. Like any other cell surface protein MHC class I molecules are synthesised in the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), modified in the Golgi apparatus and are transported in transport vesicles to the cell surface (Wood, 2006). MHC class I molecules bind to different sets of peptides. Translocation of peptides derived from degradation of cytosolic proteins from the cytoplasm into the RER is negotiated by transporter molecules known as transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) molecules. TAP is a heterodimer consisting of two subunits, TAP-1 and TAP-2, which are encoded in the class II region of the MHC locus on chromosome 6. Deletion or mutation of either or both TA P-1 and TAP-2 proteins severely impairs the translocation of peptides into the RER, the result of which is reduced surface expression of MHC class I molecules (Gadola et. al., 2000). BLS is manifested as a combined immunodeficiency presenting early in life. BLS manifests during the first 6 years of life where affected individuals are susceptible to recurrent opportunistic bacterial infections especially of the upper respiratory tract. In BLS, the underlying cause of Class I deficiency is due to a nonsense mutation in the TAP (Clement et. al., 1988). As discussed earlier, TAP is involved in the critical step of transporting peptides to the inner lumen of ER. In BLS, the deficiencies of active TAP results in the impairment of the transport of peptide to ER. This inefficient transport means that few or no MHC Class I molecules can be complexed with peptides. The un-complexed MHC Class I molecules are highly unstable and are therefore degraded quickly. This ultimately results in low levels of peptide-MHC Class I complex being expressed on the plasma membrane. In this way, deficiency in active TAP leads to low antigen presentation via MHC Class I molecules resulting in inefficient activation of CD8 T lymphocytes and consequently a compromised immune response. The basis of bare lymphocyte syndrome can be concluded from protein coded genes that are transformed and are not able to control the expression of the MHC I genes. Till today a beneficial treatment of TAP deficiency is not yet available; gene therapy isnt possible as almost all of the HLA class I molecule express on nucleated cells. If there is damage to the bronchial and pulmonary tissue lung transplantation can be performed. Contact with tobacco and smoke should be avoided and also vaccinations should be performed against respiratory pathogens. Other than Bare lymphocyte syndrome, MHC class I allotype is also linked to various sero-negative spondarthropathies, such as Ankylosing spondylitis, Psoriatic Arthritis, Reiters Syndrome and Behcets syndrome.

Thomas Hobbes Answer to Davenants Preface to Gondibert :: Answer to Davenants Preface to Gondibert

Thomas Hobbes' Answer to Davenant's Preface to Gondibert    In his "Answer to Davenant's Preface to Gondibert," Thomas Hobbes takes a stab at literary theory. He is prompted to write the reply because Davenant mentions Hobbes in the preface to the epic poem, Gondibert. Hobbes notes up front that he is hindered in two ways because he is 1) incompetent in poetry and 2) flattered by the praise Davenant has lauded him. These hindrances don't prevent Hobbes from detailing a general theory of poetry. He delineates the different types of poetry, discusses the poet and mode of composition, and addresses issues of form, content, and style. His ideas are based largely on his philosophy of rational thought and empirical evidence.    Hobbes begins by dividing poetry into three types that correspond with the three types of philosophy and the three "regions of mankind." Philosopy can be divided into "celestial, aerial, and terrestrial." Mankind divides itself into "court, city, and country." Poets write about these three different regions of mankind in "three sorts of poesy, heroic, scommatic, and pastoral." Each of these types of poetry can be conveyed in either a narrative or dramatic form. Hobbes writes:    the heroic poem narrative...is called an epic poem. The heroic poem dramatic is tragedy. The scommatic narrative is satire, dramatic is comedy. The pastoral narrative is called simply pastoral...; the same dramatic, pastoral comedy.    In this way he describes the "six sorts of poesy;" there can be no more or less than that. On the subject of what is a poem, Hobbes reiterates the Aristotelian concept that verse alone does not make poetry. Hobbes sums up the difference between historical or philosophical verse and poetic verse like so:    But the subject of a poem is the manners of men, not natural causes; manners presented, not dictated; and manners feigned, as the name of poesy imports, not found in men.    He goes on to allow that "fictions writ in prose" may be given entrance into the world of poetry because prose delights both in fiction and in style, but, were prose and poetry to contend toe-to-toe, it would be as if prose were "on foot against the strength and wings of Pegasus."    Hobbes addresses briefly the conventions of verse and rhyme in poetry. He iterates that ancient poets created verse to go along with musical accompaniment, which was necessary because of their religious beliefs.

Monsoons in India

It involves clearing a patch of forest land, but retaining useful trees and plant varieties, cultivating it for two to three years and then abandoning it for 10-20 years to allow the natural forest to grow back and the soil to regain its fertility. The cycle of cultivation, leaving it fallow and coming back to it for cultivation, is called the Jhum cycle. Traditionally, a village community owns/controls the forest land and decides on such rotational cultivation pattern. Thus the community cultivates land for its livelihood while practising conservation and taking care of the ecological balance. However, with the population pressure, communities wanting to grow more food have cleared greater chunks of forest lands and returned to the fallow plots much sooner than 10-20 years. The length of the fallow phase between two successive cropping phases has come down to even two to three years in some places. This has resulted in soil degradation, fall in yield, lower returns, and reduction in green cover. It is this change in traditional practice, arising out of changing conditions, that has given jhum agriculture a bad name. Separately, forests are being exploited for timber and hills are being flattened for soil and stones. Often, this denuding of the forest too is blamed upon jhum cultivation. The state government has come out with various schemes to provide the jhumais with alternate means of livelihood and wean them away from jhuming. However the needs of the jhum cultivators have not been assessed rightly and these schemes have met with limited success or have completely failed. It is important to state here that shifting cultivation should not be confused with slash-and-burn. Slash-and-burn is a mere land clearing method used by many people around the globe to open up forest land and use it for permanent agriculture. On the contrary, shifting cultivation is an integrated farming system involving forestry, agriculture and strong social organisation on the part of the communities. Ecologically, the practice of jhum has a deleterious effect on the local environment, while others have often thwarted those arguments and proved that jhum in fact is a sustainable form of agricultural production best suited for the specific ecology of the hill regions. The arguments against jhum have included projecting it as an unsustainable practice that depletes the soil of nutrients, reducing the forest cover, causing landslides, etc. Arguments against jhum have come from state forestry departments, development ministries like DONER (Development Of North East Region) or trade promoting entities like the World Bank who lean towards utilisation of the region's forest resources for the benefit of national and private capital. In addition, private entities wishing to utilise the land for specific profit-making ventures, like extraction industries, utilise these arguments to push the state to wean away local villagers from practicing jhum in order to lease the land. This has happened in the hill regions of Meghalaya and Assam where corrupt or otherwise, village councils leased out land to private and national corporations for extraction industries including coal, limestone, and uranium in the future. In addition, the paper industry has pushed for the growth of bamboo by villagers as a cash crop replacing an egalitarian cultivation system with one that has created a small mercantilist class controlling all bamboo production. However, these arguments have been rebutted by many scientists, including studies by organisations like the Indian Institute of Science, Tata Energy Research Institute and UNESCO who have proved in different ways that jhum is indeed a sustainable form of agriculture best suited to the rainy hill regions of Northeast India, over other forms of agriculture such as valley or terrace cultivation. Studies have further proved that, contrary to arguments of soil infertility, the practice of jhum ensures that fallowness in the soil is not compromised on, and often rapid regeneration of the vegetation takes place once a tract of land is abandoned after cultivation. CLIMATE CHANGE Climate Change & its Impact on India India, the seventh largest country in the world and the second largest in Asia, has a total geographical area of 329 Mha, of which only 305 Mha is the reporting area (the area as per the land records of villages and towns). The mainland stretches from 8 4†² N to 37 6†² N and 68 7†² E to 97 25†² E. It has a land frontier of 15,200 km and a coastline of 7,516 km. India, the seventh largest country in the world and the second largest in Asia, has a total geographical area of 329 Mha, of which only 305 Mha is the reporting area (the area as per the land records of villages and towns). The mainland stretches from 8o4†² N to 37o6†² N and 68o7†² E to 97o 25†² E. It has a land frontier of 15,200 km and a coastline of 7,516 km. In developing countries like India, climate change could represent an additional stress on cological and socioeconomic systems that are already facing tremendous pressures due to rapid urbanization, industrialization and economic development. With its huge and growing population, a 7500-km long densely populated and low-lying coastline, and an economy that is closely tied to its natural resource base, India is considerably vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. The various studies conducted in the country have shown that the surface air temperatures in India are going up at the rate of 0. 4oC per hundred years, particularly during the post-monsoon and winter season. Using models, they predict that mean winter temperatures will increase by as much as 3. 2oC in the 2050s and 4. 5oC by 2080s, due to Greenhouse gases. Summer temperatures will increase by 2. 2oC in the 2050s and 3. 2oC in the 2080s. Extreme temperatures and heat spells have already become common over Northern India, often causing loss of human life. In 1998 alone, 650 deaths occurred in Orissa due to heat waves. Climate change has had an effect on the monsoons too. India is heavily dependent on the monsoon to meet its agricultural and water needs, and also for protecting and propagating its rich biodiversity. Subtle changes have already been noted in the monsoon rain patterns by scientists at IIT, Delhi. They also warn that India will experience a decline in summer rainfall by the 2050s, summer rainfall accounts for almost 70% of the total annual rainfall over India and is crucial to Indian agriculture. Relatively small climatic changes can cause large water resource problems, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions such as northwest India. This will have an impact on agriculture, drinking water and on generation of hydro-electric power. Apart from monsoon rains, India uses perennial rivers, which originate and depend on glacial melt-water in the Hindukush and Himalayan ranges. Since the melting season coincides with the summer monsoon season, any intensification of the monsoon is likely to contribute to flood disasters in the Himalayan catchment. Rising temperatures will also contribute to the raising of snowline, reducing the capacity of this natural reservoir, and increasing the risk of flash floods during the wet season. Increased temperatures will impact agricultural production. Higher temperatures reduce the total duration of a crop cycle by inducing early flowering, thus shortening the `grain fill’ period. The shorter the crop cycle, the lower the yield per unit area. A trend of sea level rise of 1 cm per decade has been recorded along the Indian coast. Sea level rise due to thermal expansion of sea water in the Indian Ocean is expected to be about 25-040 cm by 2050. This could inundate low lying areas, down coastal marshes and wetlands, erode beaches, exacerbate flooding and increase the salinity of rivers, bays and aquifers. Deltas will be threatened by flooding, erosion and salt intrusion. Loss of coastal mangroves will have an impact on fisheries. The major delta area of the Ganga, Brahmaputra and Indus rivers, which have large populations reliant on riverine resources will be affected by changes in water regimes, salt water intrusions and land loss. Increase in temperatures will result in shifts of lower altitude tropical and subtropical forests to higher altitude temperate forest regions, resulting in the extinction of some temperate vegetation types. Decrease in rainfall and the resultant soil moisture stress could result in drier teak dominated forests replacing sal trees in central India. Increased dry spells could also place dry and moist deciduous forests at increased risk from forest fires. Medical Science suggests that the rise in temperature and change in humidity will adversely affect human health in India. Heat stress could result in heat cramps, heat exhaustion, heal stroke, and damage physiological functions, metabolic processes and immune systems. Increased temperatures can increase the range of vector borne diseases such as malaria, particularly in regions where minimum temperatures currently limited pathogen and vector development. as one of the first in Asia to recognize the effectiveness of the Export Processing Zone (EPZ) model in promoting exports, with Asia's first EPZ set up in Kandla in 1965. With a view to overcome the shortcomings experienced on account of the multiplicity of controls and clearances; absence of world-class infrastructure, and an unstable fiscal regime and with a view to attract larger foreign investments in India, the Special Econ omic Zones (SEZs) Policy was announced in April 2000. This policy intended to make SEZs an engine for economic growth supported by quality infrastructure complemented by an attractive fiscal package, both at the Centre and the State level, with the minimum possible regulations. SEZs in India functioned from 1. 11. 2000 to 09. 02. 2006 under the provisions of the Foreign Trade Policy and fiscal incentives were made effective through the provisions of relevant statutes. To instill confidence in investors and signal the Government's commitment to a stable SEZ policy regime and with a view to mpart stability to the SEZ regime thereby generating greater economic activity and employment through the establishment of SEZs, a comprehensive draft SEZ Bill prepared after extensive discussions with the stakeholders. A number of meetings were held in various parts of the country both by the Minister for Commerce and Industry as well as senior officials for this purpose. The Special Economic Zones Act, 2005, was passed by Parliament in May, 2005 whic h received Presidential assent on the 23rd of June, 2005. The draft SEZ Rules were widely discussed and put on the website of the Department of Commerce offering suggestions/comments. Around 800 suggestions were received on the draft rules. After extensive consultations, the SEZ Act, 2005, supported by SEZ Rules, came into effect on 10th February, 2006, providing for drastic simplification of procedures and for single window clearance on matters relating to central as well as state governments. The main objectives of the SEZ Act are: (a)generation of additional economic activity (b)promotion of exports of goods and services; c)promotion of investment from domestic and foreign sources; (d)creation of employment opportunities; (e)development of infrastructure facilities; It is expected that this will trigger a large flow of foreign and domestic investment in SEZs, in infrastructure and productive capacity, leading to generation of additional economic activity and creation of employment opportunities. The SEZ Act 2005 envisages key role for th e State Governments in Export Promotion and creation of related infrastructure. A Single Window SEZ approval mechanism has been provided through a 19 member inter-ministerial SEZ Board of Approval (BoA). The applications duly recommended by the respective State Governments/UT Administration are considered by this BoA periodically. All decisions of the Board of approvals are with consensus. The SEZ Rules provide for different minimum land requirement for different class of SEZs. Every SEZ is divided into a processing area where alone the SEZ units would come up and the non-processing area where the supporting infrastructure is to be created. was one of the first in Asia to recognize the effectiveness of the Export Processing Zone (EPZ) model in promoting exports, with Asia's first EPZ set p in Kandla in 1965. With a view to overcome the shortcomings experienced on account of the multiplicity of controls and clearances; absence of world-class infrastructure, and an unstable fiscal regime and with a view to attract larger foreign investments in India, the Special Economic Zones (SEZs) Policy was announced in April 2000. This policy intended to make SEZs an engine for economic growth sup ported by quality infrastructure complemented by an attractive fiscal package, both at the Centre and the State level, with the minimum possible regulations. SEZs in India functioned from 1. 11. 2000 to 09. 02. 006 under the provisions of the Foreign Trade Policy and fiscal incentives were made effective through the provisions of relevant statutes. To instill confidence in investors and signal the Government's commitment to a stable SEZ policy regime and with a view to impart stability to the SEZ regime thereby generating greater economic activity and employment through the establishment of SEZs, a comprehensive draft SEZ Bill prepared after extensive discussions with the stakeholders. A number of meetings were held in various parts of the country both by the Minister for Commerce and Industry as well as senior officials for this purpose. The Special Economic Zones Act, 2005, was passed by Parliament in May, 2005 which received Presidential assent on the 23rd of June, 2005. The draft SEZ Rules were widely discussed and put on the website of the Department of Commerce offering suggestions/comments. Around 800 suggestions were received on the draft rules. After extensive consultations, the SEZ Act, 2005, supported by SEZ Rules, came into effect on 10th February, 2006, providing for drastic simplification of procedures and for single window clearance on matters relating to central as well as state governments.

Tin Hedgehog Experiment - Grow Tin Metal Crystals

Tin Hedgehog Experiment - Grow Tin Metal Crystals Metal crystals are intricate and beautiful. They are also surprisingly easy to grow. In this experiment, learn how to grow tin crystals that display a spiky appearance that make them look like a metal hedgehog. Tin Hedgehog Materials 0.5 M tin(II) chloride solution (SnCl2)zinc pellettest tube or vial that is larger in diameter than the zinc The rounded hedgehog shape forms around a pellet of zinc, but you can substitute any chunk of zinc metal. Since the reaction occurs at the surface of the metal, you may also use a galvanized (zinc coated) object in place of the zinc pellet. Grow a Tin Hedgehog Pour tin chloride solution into a vial. Dont fill it up all the way because you need room for the zinc.Add the zinc pellet. Set the vial somewhere stable, so it wont get bumped or jarred.Watch the delicate tin crystals grow! Youll see the beginning of a spiky hedgehog shape in the first 15 minutes, with good crystal formation within an hour. Be sure to take pictures or video of the crystals for later, since the tin hedgehog wont last. Eventually, the weight of the fragile crystals or movement of the container will collapse the structure. The bright metallic shine of the crystals will dull over time, plus the solution will turn cloudy. Chemistry of the Reaction In this experiment, tin(II) chloride (SnCl2) reacts with zinc metal (Zn) to form tin metal (Sn) and zinc chloride (ZnCl2) via a substitution or single displacement  reaction: SnCl2   Zn → Sn ZnCl2 Zinc acts as a reducing agent, giving electrons to the tin chloride so that the tin is free to precipitate.  The reaction begins at the surface of the zinc metal. As the tin metal is produced, atoms stack on top of each other in a characteristic form or allotrope of the element. The fern-like shape of the zinc crystals is a characteristic of that metal, so while other types of metal crystals may be grown using this technique, they wont display the same appearance. Grow a Tin Hedgehog Using an Iron Nail Another way to grow tin crystals is using zinc chloride solution and iron. Unless you use a round chunk of iron, you wont get a hedgehog, but you can get the crystal growth, just the same. Materials iron wire or nail0.1 M tin chloridetest tube Note: You dont need to make up a new tin chloride solution. If you have solution from the reaction with zinc, you can use that. The concentration mainly affects how quickly the crystals grow. Procedure Suspend the iron wire or nail in a test tube containing tin chloride.After about an hour, crystals will start to form. You can examine these with a magnifying glass or by removing the wire and looking at the crystals under a microscope.Allow the iron to remain in the solution overnight for more/larger crystals. Chemical Reaction Once again, this is a  simple displacement chemical reaction: Sn2   Fe → Sn Fe2 Safety and Disposal As always, its good practice to wear safety goggles and gloves when performing chemistry experiments.When you have finished the experiment, you can rinse the chemicals down the drain with water. Learn More Use a magnifying lens to compare tin crystals grown on the zinc and iron surfaces.You may wish to experiment with how changing the concentration of the zinc chloride solution or temperature of the solution affects the crystal growth rate and appearance.Try to grow other metal crystals using this technique. Keep in mind the resulting crystals might not resemble a hedgehog. To choose a subject, find a metal salt that is soluble in water, does not oxidize too quickly in air, yet can react with zinc or iron (or other metal) to form crystals. The metal needs to be more reactive than tin or the substitution wont proceed.  Its also a good idea to consider the toxicity of the metal, for personal safety and chemical disposal. You can consult the solubility rules to select good candidates for further experimentation. Sources Holleman, Arnold F.; Wiberg, Egon; Wiberg, Nils (1985). Tin. Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie (in German) (91–100 ed.). Walter de Gruyter. pp. 793–800. ISBN 3-11-007511-3.Schwartz, Mel (2002). Tin and Alloys, Properties. Encyclopedia of Materials, Parts and Finishes (2nd ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 1-56676-661-3.